3次先前的流行病如何引发大规模的社会转变
19世纪的版画描绘了死亡天使在Antonine瘟疫期间降落在罗马。
JG Levasseur / Wellcome系列, CC BY

在2020年XNUMX月之前,很少有人认为疾病可能是人类历史的重要驱动因素。

Not so anymore.不再是了。 People are beginning to understand that人们开始明白 小变化 COVID-19已经引入或加速发展-远程医疗,远程工作,社交疏远,握手之死,在线购物,现金的虚拟消失等-已经开始改变他们的生活方式。 They may not be sure whether these changes will outlive the pandemic.他们可能不确定这些变化是否会超过大流行。 And they may be uncertain whether these changes are for good or ill.他们可能不确定这些变化是好是坏。

Three previous plagues could yield some clues about the way COVID-19 might bend the arc of history.先前的三场灾难可能会为COVID-XNUMX改变历史弧线提供一些线索。 As如 我教 在我的“瘟疫,流行病和政治”课程中,流行病倾向于以三种方式塑造人类事务。

First, they can profoundly alter a society's fundamental worldview.首先,它们可以深刻改变社会的基本世界观。 Second, they can upend core economic structures.第二,它们可以颠覆核心经济结构。 And, finally, they can sway power struggles among nations.最后,他们可以在国家之间摇摆权力斗争。


内在自我订阅图形


疾病刺激了基督教西部的崛起

安东尼瘟疫及其双胞胎塞浦路斯瘟疫– 现在都被认为是由天花拉伤引起的 –从公元165年至262年摧毁了罗马帝国。 据估计 大流行病的总死亡率是该帝国人口的四分之一到三分之一。

While staggering, the number of deaths tells only part of the story.虽然令人震惊,但死亡人数只说明了故事的一部分。 This also triggered a profound transformation in the religious culture of the Roman Empire.这也引发了罗马帝国宗教文化的深刻变革。

在Antonine瘟疫的前夕, 帝国是异教徒。 The vast majority of the population worshipped multiple gods and spirits and believed that rivers, trees, fields and buildings each had their own spirit.绝大多数人口都崇拜多种神灵,并认为河流,树木,田野和建筑物各有自己的精神。

基督教是一元神教,与异教徒没有什么共同之处, 只有40,000名拥护者,不超过帝国人口的0.07%。

然而,在塞浦路斯瘟疫终结的一代人中,基督教已成为帝国的主要宗教。

这些双生大流行如何影响这种深刻的宗教变革?

罗德尼·史塔克(Rodney Stark)在他的开创性著作中,“基督教的兴起”,这两个大流行病使基督教成为一种更具吸引力的信仰体系。

While the disease was effectively incurable, rudimentary palliative care – the provision of food and water, for example – could spur recovery of those too weak to care for themselves.尽管这种疾病实际上是无法治愈的,但基本的姑息治疗(例如提供食物和水)可能会刺激那些身体虚弱而无法照顾自己的人康复。 Motivated by Christian charity and an ethic of care for the sick – and enabled by the thick social and charitable networks around which the early church was organized – the empire's Christian communities were willing and able to provide this sort of care.受基督教慈善机构和对病人的照顾伦理的驱使,并且由于早期教会在其周围建立的广泛的社会和慈善网络的支持,帝国的基督徒社区愿意并且能够提供这种照顾。

另一方面,异教徒罗马人则选择逃避瘟疫的爆发或自我隔离,以期免受感染。

这有两个作用。

First, Christians survived the ravages of these plagues at higher rates than their pagan neighbors and developed higher levels of immunity more quickly.首先,与这些异教徒的邻居相比,基督徒在这些灾难中的幸存率更高,并且更快地发展了更高的免疫力。 Seeing that many more of their Christian compatriots were surviving the plague – and attributing this either to divine favor or the benefits of the care being provided by Christians –看到他们的更多基督徒同胞正在幸免于瘟疫,并将其归因于神圣的恩惠或基督徒提供的关怀的好处– 许多异教徒被吸引到基督教社区及其基础的信仰体系。 At the same time, tending to sick pagans afforded Christians unprecedented opportunities to evangelize.同时,趋于生病的异教徒为基督徒提供了前所未有的传播福音的机会。

其次,史塔克认为,由于这两个灾祸对年轻孕妇的影响不成比例,因此基督徒中较低的死亡率转化为较高的出生率。

所有这些的最终结果是,在大约一个世纪的时间里,一个本质上是异教徒的帝国在成为多数基督教徒的道路上发现了自己的良好状态。

查士丁尼的瘟疫和罗马的陷落

查士丁尼时代的瘟疫以罗马皇帝的名字命名,从公元527年至565年统治罗马。罗马帝国于公元542年到达罗马帝国,直到755年才消失。 估计占人口的25%至50% – 25万至100亿的人口。

大规模的生命损失使经济瘫痪,引发了一场金融危机,耗尽了国家的金库,使帝国曾经强大的军事力量陷入瘫痪。

In the east, Rome's principal geopolitical rival, Sassanid Persia, was also devastated by the plague and was therefore in no position to exploit the Roman Empire's weakness.在东方,罗马的主要地缘政治竞争对手波斯(Sassanid Persia)也遭受了瘟疫的摧残,因此无法利用罗马帝国的弱点。 But the forces of the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate in Arabia – which had long been contained by the Romans and Sasanians – were largely unaffected by the plague.但是,长期以来一直被罗马人和萨桑人所控制的阿拉伯伊斯兰拉希敦哈里发的力量在很大程度上不受鼠疫的影响。 The reasons for this are not well understood,原因尚不清楚 但他们可能与哈里发与主要城市中心的相对隔离有关.

Caliph Abu Bakr didn't let the opportunity go to waste.哈里发·阿布·巴克(Halph Abu Bakr)绝不浪费机会。 Seizing the moment,抓紧时间 他的部队迅速征服了整个萨萨尼亚帝国 同时剥夺了罗马帝国在黎凡特,高加索,埃及和北非的领土。

Pre-pandemic, the Mediterranean world had been relatively unified by commerce, politics, religion and culture.在大流行之前,地中海世界通过商业,政治,宗教和文化已相对统一。 What emerged was a fractured trio of civilizations jockeying for power and influence: an Islamic one in the eastern and southern Mediterranean basin;随之而来的是分裂的三大文明争夺权力和影响力:地中海东部和南部的伊斯兰教徒; a Greek one in the northeastern Mediterranean;地中海东北部的希腊人; and a European one between the western Mediterranean and the North Sea.在西地中海和北海之间的一个欧洲国家。

最后的文明–我们现在称之为 中世纪的欧洲 –由新的,独特的经济体系定义。

瘟疫爆发前的欧洲经济 曾经是奴隶制。 After the plague, the significantly diminished supply of slaves forced landowners to begin granting plots to nominally “free” laborers – serfs who worked the lord's fields and, in return, received military protection and certain legal rights from the lord.瘟疫过后,奴隶的供应大大减少,迫使土地所有者开始向名义上为“自由”的工人提供土地,这些工人是在领主领地工作的农奴,作为回报,他们得到了领主的军事保护和某些合法权利。

种植了封建主义的种子。

中世纪的黑死病

黑死病于1347年在欧洲爆发 随后被杀害了三分之一到一半 of the total European population of 80 million people.欧洲总人口1350万人中But it killed more than people.但是它杀死的人不止于此。 By the time the pandemic had burned out by the early XNUMXs, a distinctly modern world emerged – one defined by free labor, technological innovation and a growing middle class.到XNUMX年代初期流行病消灭时,出现了一个明显的现代世界-一个由自由劳动,技术创新和不断壮大的中产阶级定义的世界。

之前 鼠疫耶尔森氏菌 细菌 在1347年到达 西欧是一个人口过多的封建社会。 Labor was cheap, serfs had little bargaining power, social mobility was stymied and there was little incentive to increase productivity.劳动力便宜,农奴讨价还价能力低,社会流动性受阻,提高生产力的动力不大。

但是,如此多的生命损失震撼了一个僵化的社会。

劳工短缺 gave peasants more bargaining power.给了农民更多的议价能力。 In the agrarian economy, they also encouraged the widespread adoption of new and existing technologies – the iron plow,在农业经济中,他们还鼓励广泛采用新技术和现有技术,例如铁犁, 三田轮作系统 and fertilization with manure, all of which significantly increased productivity.和施肥,所有这些都大大提高了生产率。 Beyond the countryside, it resulted in the invention of time and labor-saving devices such as the printing press, water pumps for draining mines and gunpowder weapons.在农村以外,它发明了省时省力的设备,例如印刷机,排雷用的水泵和火药武器。

(之前的3次大流行如何引发了巨大的社会转变)黑死病造成大量的劳动力短缺。 通用历史档案/通用图像组(通过Getty Images)

反过来,摆脱封建义务的自由和上移社会阶梯的渴望 鼓励很多农民 to move to towns and engage in crafts and trades.搬到城镇从事手工业。 The more successful ones became wealthier and constituted a new middle class.较成功的人变得更加富有,并组成了新的中产阶级。 They could now afford more of the luxury goods that could be obtained only from beyond Europe's frontiers, and this stimulated both long-distance trade and the more efficient three-masted ships needed to engage in that trade.现在,他们负担得起只能从欧洲边界以外获得的更多奢侈品,这不仅刺激了长途贸易,而且刺激了从事该贸易所需的效率更高的三桅帆船。

The new middle class's increasing wealth also stimulated patronage of the arts, science, literature and philosophy.新的中产阶级的财富增加也刺激了艺术,科学,文学和哲学的光顾。 The result was an explosion of cultural and intellectual creativity – what we now call结果是文化和智力创造力的爆炸式增长-我们现在称之为 复兴.

我们现在的未来

所有这些都不是说仍在进行的COVID-19大流行将产生同样令人震惊的后果。 死亡率 COVID-19的危害与上面讨论的瘟疫完全不同,因此后果可能不会那么严重。

但是有迹象表明它们可能是。

西方开放社会为遏制病毒崩溃所做的不懈努力是否会得到解决? 对自由民主的坚定信念,为其他意识形态发展和转移创造空间?

以类似的方式,COVID-19可能会加速已经 持续的地缘政治转变 in the balance of power between the US and China.在中美之间的力量平衡中。 During the pandemic, China has taken the global lead in providing medical assistance to other countries as part of its “在大流行期间,中国在向其他国家提供医疗援助方面处于全球领先地位,这是其“卫生丝路主动权。 有些人认为 美国领导能力的失败和中国在弥补这一空缺方面取得相对成功的结合,很可能会加速中国崛起,成为全球领导者。

最后,COVID-19似乎正在加速 阐明长期的工作模式和实践, with repercussions that could affet the future of office towers, big cities and mass transit, to name just a few.的影响可能会影响办公大楼,大城市和公共交通的未来,仅举几例。 The implications of this and related economic developments may prove as profoundly transformative as those triggered by the Black Death in 1347.与XNUMX年黑死病所引发的变化一样,这种经济发展及其相关经济发展的影响也可能具有深刻的变革性。

Ultimately, the longer-term consequences of this pandemic – like all previous pandemics – are simply unknowable to those who must endure them.最终,这种流行病的长期后果(就像以前的所有流行病一样)对于那些必须忍受的人来说是完全不知道的。 But just as past plagues made the world we currently inhabit, so too will this plague likely remake the one populated by our grandchildren and great-grandchildren.但是就像过去的瘟疫使我们现在生活的世界一样,这一瘟疫也很可能会重塑我们的孙辈和曾孙辈所居住的瘟疫。谈话

关于作者

政治学教授安德鲁·拉瑟姆(Andrew Latham) 麦卡莱斯特学院

本文重新发表 谈话 根据知识共享许可。 阅读 原创文章.